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Why Is Chocolate Not Recommended During Common Cold?

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Why is chocolate not recommended during common cold? 1. High sugar content → Immune suppression Scientific reason: Chocolate (especially milk chocolate) contains a high amount of simple sugars. Glucose spikes in blood reduce the efficiency of neutrophils (white blood cells) by interfering with phagocytosis. Consequence: • Reduced ability to fight viruses • Prolonged duration of cold • Slower recovery 2. Increased mucus viscosity Scientific reason: Sugar and dairy components increase mucus viscosity by altering water content and glycoprotein structure in respiratory secretions. Consequence: • Thick, sticky phlegm • Nasal congestion worsens • Heavier throat irritation and cough 3. Dairy proteins → Perceived phlegm formation Scientific reason: Milk chocolate contains casein , which interacts with saliva and mucosal secretions, increasing their thickness. This does not increase mucus production but increases mucus sensation . Consequence: • Feeling of throat blockage •...
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Central Dogma of Molecular Biology: Complete Explanation with Enzymes

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  Central Dogma of Molecular Biology Introduction Modern molecular biology rests on one unifying principle: the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology . Proposed by Francis Crick, it explains how genetic information flows inside living cells and how that information becomes structure, function, and life itself. In its classical form, the central dogma states: DNA → RNA → Protein This flow is not automatic. Every step is executed, regulated, and safeguarded by specific enzymes . Understanding these enzymes transforms the central dogma from a memorized pathway into a mechanistic, logical system . DNA: The Genetic Information Store DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is the primary genetic material of most organisms. It is: Double-stranded and antiparallel Composed of nucleotides with bases A, T, G, and C Chemically stable and ideal for long-term storage Genes are specific DNA sequences that encode proteins or functional RNAs. DNA itself does not perform cellular work; instea...
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  Streptodornase: The DNase That Supercharges Streptococcal Virulence “Streptodornase is basically a DNA cutter that helps bacteria escape our immune system. Think of it as a molecular scissor that lets them break free from our traps.” Streptococcus pyogenes owes much of its invasive capability to a secreted DNase collectively termed streptodornase. While traditionally described as an enzyme that “degrades extracellular DNA,” its biological significance is far more strategic: streptodornase is a precision immunity-evasion factor that rewires host–pathogen interactions by eliminating DNA-based structural and immunological barriers. Firstly the question: Why DNA Degradation Matters in Infection? During acute infection, host tissues accumulate extracellular DNA originating from Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) Necrotic host cells Viscous inflammatory exudates This DNA is not passive debris; it is a biophysical defense element. NETs, in particular, immobiliz...
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The microbiome as the “second brain” and its link to intuition

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     The gut of man is not just an ordinary organ. It contains over a hundred million neurons and trillions of microbes, makes it look like a second brain and is capable of sensing, signaling and even executing digestive movements without requiring a connection to the head. Neuroscientist Julia Kalatschmidt of Stanford observes that this enteric nervous system secretes more than 30 neurotransmitters and can act independently, although the book The Mind-Gut Connection by Dr. Emeran Mayer reveals that the microbes feed into that system, releasing chemical messengers including serotonin, 90 percent of which is produced in the gut. Whose signals are in the vagus nerve, the speedy information transportation system between abdomen and brain. Whenever individuals refer to 'gut feelings' they are probably talking about actual biological conversations.  Wrapped through the intestines, the enteric nervous system houses over 100 - 600  million neurons and communicates cons...
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Hybridoma Technology: Lab made Antibodies!

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Introduction Hybridoma technology is a method for producing large quantities of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) by fusing a specific type of white blood cell (B-cell) with a myeloma (cancer) cell. This technology allows for the production of antibodies that are identical (monoclonal), providing high specificity and consistency in binding to the target antigen. Historical Background The technique was first developed by Georges Köhler and César Milstein in 1975, for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1984. Hybridoma technology revolutionized immunology, leading to significant advances in diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Procedure Fig 1: General Procdure   Immunization of Host Animal: Objective: The goal is to induce a robust immune response in the host animal (commonly a mouse), leading to the production of B-cells that generate antibodies specific to the antigen of...
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RIMINI vs. OSAKA: Insights on Kidney Transplant Rejection Rates

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In the domain of kidney transplantation, BPAR, which stands for Biopsy-Proven Acute Rejection , is an essential issue that has to be addressed and prevented. Modern pilot researches, which include the RIMINI and OSAKA trials, highlight certain distinctive characteristics of various immunosuppressive protocols. In the RIMINI study group BPAR was much higher 22% and in the historical cohort the rate was unspecified. However, information concerning the immunosuppressants utilized in the historical data remains limited, which in turn poses a challenge to making pertinent comparisons. On the other hand, the OSAKA study which used Tac , MMF and steroids presented a BPAR of between 10-16%. Such contrast of situations suggests that there may be advantages in applying the specific combination of a drugs which was used in the experiment of OSAKA. The consequences in the RIMINI study were unfavorable; there was graft loss and five more cases of BPAR associated with poor graft function. This ...
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Look deeper into DNA, examine how building blocks stack together!

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DNA, the genetic blueprint for all living cells, is made up of four nucleotide bases: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Thymine (T), and Cytosine (C). These bases form pairs, with A pairing with T and G with C, creating the double-stranded structure of DNA. The stability of this double helix is maintained through two types of interactions: base-pairing and base-stacking. According to Mahipal Ganji, an Assistant Professor at the Department of Biochemistry, IISc, base-stacking interactions, which are generally stronger than base-pairing, can be compared to the teeth of a zipper, ensuring a secure connection.   To study the 16 possible base-stacking combinations, researchers used a novel imaging technique called DNA-PAINT (Point Accumulation in Nanoscale Topography). This method involves the random binding and unbinding of two artificially designed DNA strands in a buffer solution at room temperature. Each strand ends with a different base and is tagged with a fluorophore that emits light...
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